34
Sacred Groves and Biological
Diversity: Providing New Dimensions
to Conservation Issues
S. Deshmukh*, M.G. Gogate** and A.K. Gupta***
"Principal Scientist, Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai 400023,
India
* "Chief Conservator of Forests (WL), Maharashtra State Forest
Department, Nagpur, India
*'Professor, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad 380 015, India
INTRODUCTION
Since the ancient days, setting aside pockets of forest lands has been the practice for centuries in India. To protect these biological resources more meaningfully, a religious tag was attached which served over the years as a key factor in genetic conservation through the mechanism of sacred groves. Sacred groves thus represent a tradition of conservation by the people much prior to the modern concepts of "Wildlife reserves".

Studies on sacred groves of Maharashtra were pioneered as early as in 1970s (Gadgil and Vartak, 1976). While studying the sacred groves of Maharashtra (Deshmukh and Gogate, 1997), it was observed^ that traditionally, sacred groves were established with a view to preserve, share and save water resources from the region where they existed. The concept of sacred groves grew over time when some of the important ecological and economic species of plants or of animals were conserved (or protected) in a grove. Sacred grove was one way of expressing the gratitude of man towards the vegetation which sustained and supported life under respective agro-ecological condition. However, studies on socio-economic aspects as well a complete inventory of sacred groves representing different agro-ecological regions of Maharashtra are still lacking.
This paper poses several questions (o address Issues relating to conservation and development of sacred groves and also provides criteria for genetic conservation based on primary information on each of the sacred groves that are exiting today. We hope that the study will eventually lead to defining the critical role of scientific community as well as Forest Department in the legal context which will not only help it organise peoples' movement in recognising the importance of sacred groves, but also achieve their conservation and development for posterity.
WARNING SIGNALS
A detailed summary of available knowledge on the number and size of sacred groves in Maharashtra is given in Table 1. Before one works out the future strategies for conservation and sustainable utilisation of sacred groves, it would be useful to look at the problems which were encountered during the exploration of various forest areas in Maharashtra for inventorying sacred groves. Some of the warning signals are:

1.	strained status to the groves due to depletion of old,  indigenous
flora as well as land-use alienation;
2.	depletion in the natural resources, such as drying of streams;
3.	calamities such as intensifying droughts as well as cyclones and
floods;
4.	loss of grazing lands vis a vis decrease in the common property
resources;
5.	increasing biotic and abiotic stresses on areas surrounding sacred
groves thereby affecting agriculture;
6.	heterogeneity in size of sacred groves and absence of systematic,
scientific efforts to establish values to a reasonable extent;  .
7.	alteration in the land use patterns in villages as well as in the urban
areas due to explosive growth of rural and urban population as well
as unemployment.

Nature protection can not be done without people's cooperation and understanding. Therefore it would be desirable to derive simple and reliable methodology to determine relevance of a sacred grove to the micro-level biodiversity conservation and thus to livelihood and well-being of the persons concerned. Following paragraphs highlight some of the unanswered questions, the answers of which could lead to defining strategies for conservation and utilisation of sacred groves.

UNDERSTAND  SACRED  GROVES:  SOME  UNANSWERED  QUESIIONS
Ecological History
a.	Age of Sacred Groves
If the sacred grove is one generation old (i.e.contemporary) then the question is what events took place that the current sacred grove was evolved? What are the reasons for identification of this particular area for establishment of a sacred grove? Which trees were planted first?
One of the interesting observations in terms of religious practices of communities is in the form of establishment and/utilisation of burial grounds. These practices have also lead to protection of a few forest patches.
b.	Changing Proportion of Species
What is the changing proportion of species over time? Whether we can highlight this aspect, and if yes, then we will have to look at the issues relating to the institutional aspects. Existence of the sacred grove could be a long term impact of some events which have helped sacred grove maintain its identity so far, such as (a) catastrophic events; (b) epidemic; (c) deforestation due to crisis, such as drought, etc.; (d) unusual events such as visits of pilgrims of particular religion, to the area for some time; and (e) propaganda of particular God/religion among the local people.
c.	Occurrence of Uncommon Species
What are the attributes for occurrence of one or two species which are not native of that religion?
d.	Decrease in Plant Cover
What are the reasons (known and unknown) for decrease in the vegetation cover of the sacred groves? Formation of barriers such as creation of roads (which also means bunds) could lead to decrease in water table to the land under sacred groves. In other words, looking at recent/ancient infrastructural events could be one such reason for understanding the role of deforestation in sacred groves.

e.	Regeneration in Sacred Groves
Regeneration in the sacred grove is one of the most important aspect to the understanding of extent of anthropogenic pressures. It is important to evolve a few more categories in addition to the natural regeneration, which facilitate regeneration process. They are:
i. Natural regeneration which itself is a very complex phenomena;
and
ii. Artificial regeneration: this need not always be linked with efforts of individuals in physically planting seedlings in the sacred grove,but could be in terms of (.1) preventing loss of spocios, (h) sustonanro of the vegetation cover, (c) preventing grazing in the area, and (d) dispersal of seeds (by birds and other fauna),

f. Extraction of Wood from Sacred Groves
It will be Interesting to note the major events/calamities-such as epidemic or drought-have forced people to utilise sacred groves for meeting their livelihood. Thus, it is clear that partial or total extraction of wood as well as non-forest produce by indigenous communities has led to decrease in the vegetation cover of sacred grove*. Such attributes of documented in relation to time, could prove crucial in understanding the role of people in conservation as well as sustainable utilisation of sacred groves.
Deity in the Sacred Groves
During our studies in the State of Maharashtra, where more than 950 sacred groves were listed (are known to exist) as seen from Table 1, it was observed that the number of deity per sacred grove was found to be more than one in quite a few cases (Deshmukh, 1997). In such cases, it would be important to know details about (a) their history; (b) establishment/ commissioning of the Deity; and (c) reasons for introducing the second deity and/or may be the third deity would be necessary. Related questions to the above points could be:

i. Which specific flowers and fruits are liked by the Deity? Can the occurrence/abundance of these species be attributed to the occurrence of specific flowering as well as fruiting trees? Whether these trees were planted with specific intention?
ii. Traditional beliefs relating to various deities in the sacred groves, e.g. in some of the rural areas in Maharashtra, it is believed that use of iron equipment/tool is disliked by the deity in the sacred grove which signifies that no trees are cut from that region. 

Indigenous Communities/Tribals
It will be important to know the time/period of settlement of the communities in the respective areas where sacred groves are currently located. Influence of the traditional as well as cultural practices of such communities has been observed to have its own bearing on the conservation ethics of biologically rich areas such as sacred groves.
CRITERIA FOR GENETIC CONSERVATION OF SACRED GROVES
In view of the above questions as well as data provided in Table 1, it is clear that the patches of biological wealth occurring in near-natural state are required to be preserved. It would therefore be useful if certain criteria for their conservation are defined.  For example, out of 953 sacred groves that are known to exist in Maharashtra, about 455 are those which are less than one hectare in size. It may not be useful to preserve all of these as they may not possess required amount of intra-specific diversity for their prolonged sustenance. Instead a substantially large (in size) sacred grove with required amount of genetic diversity may qualify for protection for posterity.
Swaminathan et al. (1995) proposed ten broadly classified criteria for identification of suitable sites for conservation and sustainable utilisation of m'angrove forest resource. They are:
1.	Genetic aspects:  Potential  for ex situ  preservation,  visual
polymorphism.
2.	Ecological aspects: Species richness, nutritional level, environmental
degradation.
3.	Utilisation level:   Human use and exploitation.
4.	Neighbouring flora and fauna: Associated ecosystem.
5.	State of the forest: Levels of degradation.
6.	Accessibility: distance from main population centres, transportation
facilities.
7.	Personnel: Training, turn-over etc.
8.	Anthropogenic factors; Threats, level of dependence, etc.
9.	Socio-political factors:    National commitment, land tenure and public awareness,
10.	  Land size: Area available at the proposed site.

The above criteria with some modifications could be applied in case of sacred groves to achieve their genetic conservation.

Table 1. Available knowledge on total number and area-wise categories of sacred groves in Maharashtra (Source: Deshmukh, 1997).	
District	Area-wise (ha) categories	*Total	
	1 	2 	3 	4 	5 	6 	7		
AHMEDNAGAR 	2 	3 					-	5	
BEED 	4 	. 	. 	. 	- 	- 	-	4 + 10*	
BHANDARA 	3 	. 	. 	. 	. 	. 	-	3	
CHANDRAPURUR 	1 	1 	. 	. 	. 	. 	-	2 + 2*	
JALGAON 	- 	4 	. 	. 	- 		-	4	
KOLHAPUR 	62 	52 	7 	2 	. 	. 	-	123 + 6*	
NASHIK 	4 	. 	. 	. 	. 	. 	-	4	
PUNE 	98 	42 	10 	6 	. 	1 	1	158 + 21*	
RAIGAD 	1 	1 	3 	9 	3 	. 	1	18 + 3*	
RATNAGIRI 	113 	60 	11 	5 	2 	. 	-	191	
SATARA 	13 	6 	. 	. 	- 	. 	-	19 + 2*	
SINDHUDURG	152 	124 	17 	16 	5 	6 	3	323 + 24*	
THANE 	1 	13 	3 	3 	5 	1 	-	26 + 1*	
YEOTMAL 	1 	. 	. 	1 	. 	1 	-	3 + 1*	
Sub-Total	455 	306 	51 	42 	15 	9 	5	883 + 70*	
Grand total :	953

	

• Area-wise categories : 1 - 1-5 ha; 2- > 1 upto 5 ha; 3- >5 upto 10 ha; 4- > 10 up to 25 ha:   5 -  > 25 upto 50 ha; 6 -  > 50 up to 100 ha,   and 7 -  > 100 ha.
AGENDA FOR FUTURE
It would be useful if the scientific community takes a coordinated approach
to find solutions to the questions raised in this paper. The Scientists will 
have to adopt during explorations of sacred groves, strategies for appropriate
education, strengthening of local communities, sustainable management
and protection of the sacred groves without alienating local/indigenous
population. This alone could help conservation of biological diversity for
posterity besides satisfying aesthetic, cultural, recreational and utilisation
needs of mankind. Participants of the National Workshop on "Conservation
and Development of sacred groves', organised by the Regional Centre
(Western Zone) of the National Afforestation and Eco-development- Board
of the Ministry, of  Environment and Forests, Government of India (Rajkot,
November 18-20, 1997), realised this need and recommended that agenda
for achieving the conservation and development of sacred groves could be:
a.	identify  locations of sacred groves  and  their association  with
communities in specific areas,
b.	conduct a detailed inventory of existing flora and fauna in sacred
groves and their relevance to the surrounding ecology; also list rare
and endangered species in the groves,
c.	quantify the social impact on the sacred groves which may then
lead to anthropogenic impact assessment,
d.	identify external threats, such as cyclones, forest fires (natural threats), v,
and/or submergence (due to human activities) to the groves,
e.	find means for conservation of sacred groves with the help of forest
department, local communities, interested organisation (both
government and non-government) as well as with the help of
individuals,

f.	develop a projectise approach for creation, protection, conservation,
and development of sacred groves providing technical, financial
and management inputs to strengthen the symbiotic relationship
between the sacred groves and people,, for their sustenance,   and
g.	preserve existing sacred groves but also try and create new (if possible) with preference on endemic as well as indigenous species which  could  serve as genetic warehouses of natural  forests, for posterity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
S. Deshmukh would like to express his gratitude towards the Forest Department, Govt. of Maharashtra for providing financial assistance to Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai to undertake this important project. He would also like to express his thanks to his research colleagues, particularly, Mr. Umesh Mundlye and Mr. Balakrishna Bhatkhande for providing some insights to this conceptual paper. Thanks are also due to the Director, BNHS, for this constant encouragement and support.
REFERENCES
Deshmukh, S. 1997. Conservation and development of sacred groves in Maharashtra. Quarterly Report on World Bank aided Maharashtra Forestry Project submitted to the Forest Department, government of Maharashtra. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai.
Deshmukh, S. and Gogate, M.G. 1997. Conservation and development of sacred groves in Maharashtra: a review. Proceedings of the National Workshop on 'Conservation and development of sacred groves' (November 18-20, 1997), Rajkot. RC-NAEB (Mumbai) Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India ( in press).
Gadgil, M. and Vartak, V.D. 1976. The sacred groves of Western Ghats in India. Economic Botany, 30 : 152-160.
Swaminathan, M.S., Deshmukh, S. and Balaji, V. (Eds.) 1995. Establishment of an international network for the conservation tnd sustainable utilisation of mangrove forest genetic resources. Mimeograph submitted to the International Tropical Timber Organisation, Yokohama, Japan. M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation. Chennai.